Writing Guidelines

TIPS ON WRITING A FORMAL PAPER

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th Edition (1994) is an invaluable resource as you write in NRSG 754. This guideline uses the MANUAL (referred to as APA) to focus on recurring issues for students who must write for science.

Components of a Formal Paper:

1. Title
2. Introduction
3. Body with levels of headings (see APA 3.31 & 3.32)
4. Conclusions and/or summary
5. References

Getting started and preparing an outline:

• Review the instructions your professor gave you for writing the paper.
• Starting with medline or CINAHL, go through until you find 4-5 articles related to your topic. Scan (avoid reading word for word - read first and last sentences of each paragraph, etc.) all 4-5 articles. Record each article on an index card - cite APA format. Write brief notes or abstract about the article for future reference.
• After scanning the articles, jot down the major points you remember about the topic (if you copy exact words to use as quotes, be sure to mark the page number). Nothing elaborate is needed, just a phrase or two that captures the essence of each idea you remember. The order in which you record each idea is not important at this stage, just get the ideas down on paper. Chances are the points you remember most readily are indeed the most relevant ideas expressed in several of the references. Or, what you remember may be a unique point made by only one author. In either event, if you remember the point, it is probably a relevant one.
• When you can recall no new points, read through what you have written. Rearrange the ideas into some logical pattern: simple to complex; facts to principles to concepts, like to like, according to paper guidelines, etc.
• Once you have rearranged the ideas into some logical pattern, you have the beginning outline for the body of your paper.

Reviewing the literature

• Now go back and finish your literature review using medline, CINAHL, and other appropriate search mechanisms. Also check the references cited at the end of all the articles and books you find for additional references. After you have a list of at least 10 or up to 20 references, start scanning them beginning with the most recent ones and record the articles on index cards as you need them. Whenever you run across a point or fact or idea worthy of note, make that note on the sheet under the outline heading to which it relates. This will save you a lot of time going back and forth over your notes trying to retrieve one point that you wrote down “somewhere.”
• If two or more authors make the same point, paraphrase one of them and then cite all other authors beside that one notation. Or, quote the best one and note which authors agree or disagree.
• When you finish taking all your notes, check each outline heading and make sure you have enough notes to describe fully and understand that section. If you need more information, go on to additional references.

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Writing your first data

• Next decide the level of the reader for whom you are writing. It is a good idea to write it with your fellow students in mind. Pretend that they know no more about this topic than you did when you first started researching it. Thus, whatever it took for you to gain a firm grasp of the topic, is what you will need to spell out for the reader. There is no need to try to impress the reader with your wit, your extensive vocabulary, or your prose style. You are writing to inform and to examine thoughtfully a given topic, so keep it clear, logical, and to the point.
• Title - use a title that most accurately reflects the topic of your paper. Don’t worry about its length. Concentrate in its accuracy and completeness. If the title is complete and reflects accurately your topic, you will find that it will include most of the terms that you need to define operationally in your paper.
• Introduction - get down to business immediately by informing the reader what that purpose of the paper is, why and to whom that topic is relevant and how the topic will be addressed. This all can be included in the first paragraph. There is no need to beat around the bush or to build up suspense. Get to the point and quickly.
  • Pretend that readers have five papers from which to choose and time to read only one. You want them to choose yours. Make the introduction clear and to the point so they have a basis on which they can make their choice.
• Now take each section, including your introduction, and read through the notes you have made until a pattern begins to emerge, much as you did when you rearranged the key points into a topical outline. When the notes begin to fall into place, start writing them down in paragraph form. Spelling and grammar are unimportant at this point. Just concentrate on building the ideas. If you get bogged down on an idea and it will just not “flow,” diagram your idea. For example, A + B leads to C in X situations. But A + B leads to D in Y situations. Now try to put it into words. Go through this process until you have written each section.
• Now add your conclusions or summary and you have the first draft of your paper.
  • Conclusions are based on an analysis of the preceding material. Once you have drawn your conclusion, go back through your paper and make sure you have covered adequately all the material needed to substantiate your conclusion. Ask yourself if, on the basis of the material you have presented, the reader is likely to reach the same conclusion. If there is anything missing fill in the missing part.
  • The summary is a recap of the major points you made in the paper. No new material or ideas are to be introduced at this point nor are you to reiterate how you wrote the paper. The summary is your attempt to highlight the major points you want the reader to remember regarding the topic.
  • A good way to check the adequacy of your summary is to go back, read your introduction, and then read your summary. Could someone read only these two sections of your paper and get a complete enough impression of what the body of your paper included to make a decision about whether or not to choose to read your paper?
• Compare your paper with the instructions your professor gave you for writing the paper. Make sure you have followed directions and included all requirements.

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Editing

• Put your first draft aside for at least 24 hours or longer. You need time to regain your objectivity; to distance yourself from your work a bit so when you begin to edit it, you will not feel you are cutting up an extension of yourself.
• When you start the editing process, read the paper through the first time to see if it flows; if there is a logical and complete development of each major point; if there is a smooth transition between each major point; if every generalization is substantiated; if any point is overly done or insufficiently made; if there is redundancy. Start revising.
• Next check you references. Have you given credit where credit is due? Remember to give a reference for all statistical or numerical data that is used. If several authors have made the same point after quoting the same preliminary source, cite the primary source. If several authors independently arrive at a similar conclusion or make the same observation, you can say, “Rogers reflected the consensus of the writers in this field when she wrote…” or you might say “Several authors (Black, 1979; Harrison, 1979; Walker, 1980) have noted that…” You also might want to cite a reference that gives more detail on an aspect of your topic than you have in your paper. For example, “Harrison, (1979) has written extensively on the topic of… One point in his work that has relevance for this paper is…” When in doubt about whether to cite a reference or not, go with a reference. If you use an authors own words - more than three together - put into quotes. Make sure you follow APA guidelines for citations in text and the reference list (APA, pp. 168-234).
• When you are satisfied with the “substance” of the paper, and the completeness of the citations, read it again for form, style, and grammar. Check your word choice, particularly modifiers. Use your Thesaurus to find the word that most directly and accurately conveys your meaning.

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Clarity

• Although you often write for colleagues and recognize the need for you writing to be clear, concise, and direct for professional purposes, for the broader audience - including the general public - you need to be especially attuned to clarity. The following issues affect clarity.
  • Acronyms. Acronyms may close out many of your readers. In addition, their ambiguity may lead to misinterpretation. If you use acronyms, explain those that may not be widely known or that may be open to misinterpretation (refer to APA 3.20).
  • Specialized Jargon. Specialized jargon may convey meaning precisely, but that precise meaning will be known only to a few. Use a generally known term if possible, or clarify the meaning of the specialized term (APA 2.03).
  • Agreement. When verbs do not agree with their subjects (APA 2.07) or pronouns with their antecedents (APA 2.08), ambiguity results. Check agreement as you edit.
  • Paragraphs and Sentences. Although one-sentence paragraphs are occasionally appropriate, scientific writing typically requires more support than one sentence can afford. Overly long paragraphs laden with scientific information place undue pressure on readers. Use the subject matter and the needs of the audience as guides to the paragraph length (APA 2.03). Sentences should be relatively short, clear, precise, and direct as in most professional business documents (APA 2.03-2.05).
  • Personification. In an attempt to be objective or to avoid placing responsibility, some scientific writers personify - attribute human action to nonhuman entities. This is distracting and confusing to readers. Instead, identify the doers of the action; use I or we if appropriate (APA 2.04).
  • Plurals and Possessives. The apostrophe is used to make either a singular or plural noun possessive, conveying ownership. It is not used to make a singular noun plural. For example: “The four RNs made comments. One RN’s comments were negative.” The apostrophe is also used to indicate missing letters in a contraction. For example: “There’s nothing to it.”
  • Tenses. Establish a clear relation between events by using tenses according to APA guidelines (APA 2.06).
  • Tables and Figures. Tables and figures are essential to many scientific and professional documents. Your manual explains their relation to the text, acceptable forms, and other essential information about incorporating them into your text. Note especially the checklist for tables (APA 3.74) and for figures (APA 3.86).
  • Numbers. Generally, express numbers in figures for 10 and above; use words below 10. APA 3.42-3049 expand on these conventions and state exceptions.
  • Headings. Headings indicate the organization of a paper and the importance of each topic, much like an outline. As many as five levels of headings may be used in a long paper. Your manual explains the levels and how to choose them (APA 3.30-3.32).
  • Manuscript. The appearance of a formal document enhances the credibility of the writer’s argument. Refer to APA 4.01-4.11 for manuscript formatting and other conventions.

Before you turn in your paper....

• Always keep a copy of your paper for your files.
• Proofread again, spell check.
• Double check your final draft with course requirements for paper.

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